Uttarakhand Chief Minister Vijay Bahuguna resigns

Ending months of speculation about a change of guard, Vijay Bahuguna on Friday resigned as Uttarakhand Chief Minister amidst indications that Union Minister Harish Rawat has emerged as a strong contender to succeed him.

Shortly before going to the Raj Bhawan to submit his resignation to Governor Aziz Qureshi, the former High Court judge-turned-politician said he was resigning on the directives of the party high command.

Union Minister Ghulam Nabi Azad and AICC General Secretaries Janardan Dwivedi and Ambika Soni, who is in charge of party affairs in the State, will be here on Saturday as Central observers for ensuring a smooth changeover.

Speculation was rife for months over Mr. Bahuguna’s ouster after his leadership skills come under scrutiny in the wake of a natural calamity of catastrophic proportions that had hit the state in June last year claiming thousands of lives.

Mr. Bahuguna’s alleged delayed response with rescue operations being launched about four to five days after the calamity struck on June 16-17 came in for bitter criticism, prompting the party high command to look for a substitute for him.

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SSC Constable (GD) in BSF,CISF,CRPF & SSB Exam 2012 Medical Result

The Staff Selection Commission conducted examination for recruitment of Constable (GD) in CAPFs and Rifleman (GD) in Assam Rifles during the year 2012 of those candidates who had qualified the PST/PET. Appeared Candidates can check their Result at below links:

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SSC CGL 2013 Re-examination

Reference Press Note issued on 28th January, 2014 regarding re-examination at identified centres. The list of examination centres where re-examination for CGL, 2013 will be held is as follows:
 Lucknow, Patna, Allahabad, Delhi, Jaipur, Shimla and Dehradun. Candidates who appeared from these Centres may please note

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History : Struggle for Swaraj and British Techniques

Swaraj Party
Even after teh withdrawal of the Non-cooperation Movement, the Congress remained committed to the Council boycott programme. However, there was a section of influential Congressmen like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Vithalbhai Patel and Madan Mohan Malaviya which was keen on contesting elections under the Act of 1919. They wanted to carry the fight against the British right into the legislative councils. C.R.Das as president of the Gaya session of the Congress in 1922, when Gandhi was in jail, pleaded very strongly in favour of council entry. But a majority of the Congress delegates led by C. Rajagopalachari passed a resolution against council entry. Consequently, Das resigned the presidentship and formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress. But hte debate continued between "the changers" led by Das and "no-changers" led by Rajagopalachari.
                   Meanwhile, the Swaraj Party contested elections in November 1923 and was very successful. After his release from jail, Gandhi found himself in  a peculiar situation. He reached an understanding with the Swarajists on the condition the condition that elections will not be contested on the Congress tickets. At the same time, he asked the Congressmen to devote all their energies to mass contact through a four-fold constructive programme. This programme aimed at social reform, economic development, village reconstruction and communal harmony. The constructive work in villages also included anti-liquor campaign, social work among depressed classes and untouchables, relief work in emergencies like floods, promotion of Khadi and other cottage crafts and establishment of national schools.

Kakori Conspiracy Case
When Gandhi was busy with his rural constructive programme, the country witnessed the revival of revolutionary activities in Bengal and United Provinces. The result was the establishment of the Hindustan Republican Association at Kanpur in October 1924 under the inspiration of Chandrashekhar Azad. The aim of this association was to achieve independence through an armed struggle. It had its branches in Delhi, Punjab, Bihar, Madras, the United Provinces and several other places. Some of the other leading revolutionaries were Surya Sen, Bhupendranath Dutt, Hemchandra Kanungo, Tam Prasad Bismal, Ashfaqullah Khan, Rajendranath Lahri and Roshan Lal.
             The members of the Hindustan Republican Association even went to the extent of looting government money in order to carry on their revolutionary activities. On 9th August 1925, for instance, these revolutionaries under the leadership of Ramprasad Bismal successfully derailed a train near Kakori railway station (United Provinces ) and looted the government treasury it was carrying. This incident is known as the Kakori Conspiracy Case. It was as a result of this case that Ramprasad Bismal =, Rajendranath Lahri and Ashfaqullla Khan were sentenced to death. All of them embraced the death happily for the national cause. Roshan Lal went to the gallows with a copy of the Gita in his hands and Bande Mataram on his lips. The last words of Ramprasad Vismal were: "I wish the downfall of the British empire".

Simon Commission
There was a virtual lull in the country's politics after the death of C.R.Das . However, the appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission in November 1927 under the chairmanship of John Simon broke this lull. Its stated objective was to examine the working of the Government of India Act of 1919 and suggest further measures to improve the Indian administration. All the members of this Commission were Englishmen. This all-white Commission is also known as the 'Simon Commission'.
          The exclusion of the Indians from the membership of the Commission confirmed their doubt that the British Government was not interested in any substantial instalment of genuine constitutional reforms. They demanded that the Indian members in the British House of Commons like S.P.Sinha must be associated with the Commission. Their argument was that only the Indians knew the nature of their problem. But the British Government rejected the Indian demand. Instead, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, insulted the Indians. He said that the Indians were not competent to discuss constitutional issues or work out a constitutional framework acceptable to all sections of the society.

The Indian Response
The exclusion of Indians from the membership of the Commission and the Birekenhead's statement hurt badly the self-esteem of the Indian leadership. The result was that all the political parties and groups like the Congress, Jinnah's Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha and others declared that the Indians would not cooperate with the Simon Commission. They announced that they would oppose the Commission in all forms and at every stage. The Congress under the Presidentship of Dr. M. A. Ansari demanded complete independence in December 1927. However, the attitude of the Punjab Unionists led by Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Justice Party in the Madras Presidency and the Muslim League of Mohammad Shafi was somewhat different. Mohammad Shafi even decided to cooperate with the Commission. But it did not have any impact.
                   The Indians fully supported the boycott call and organised big protest all over India. When the Simon Commission reached Bombay on 3rd February 1928, the entire nation observed a hartal. The members of the Commission witnessed hartals and protest demonstrations on a large scale wherever they went. "Go back Simon " had become the watchword of the Indians everywhere.
                  The British Government adopted a policy of repression to crush the anti-Simon movement. Thousands of innocent and unarmed Indians were beaten by the police. The poice did not spare even the prominent nationalist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai and Govind Ballabh Pant. They were mercilessly beaten. As a result, Lala Lajpat Rai died in Lahore and Govind Ballabh pant got crippled for life. Paying a glowing tribute to Lala Lajpat Rai, Gandhi said : "Men like Lalaji cannot die so long as the sun shines in the Indian sky".
                The British repression and death of Lala Lajpat Rai on 17th November 1928 did not demoralise the Indians. On the contrary, they decided to give a new orientation to the freedom struggle. Revolutionaries like Sardar Bhagat Singh and Rajaguru  even went to the extent of avenging the death of Lala Lajpat Rai and killed a British officer, John Saunders. Saunders was responsible for the lathi charge on the ailing Lala Lajpat Rai . Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Datta created an excitement in the country by throwing two bombs on the floor of the Central Assembly Hall in Delhi on 8th April 1929. The most important aspect as they wanted to remind the British authorities that the Indian youth will not allow them to sit in peace. The government filed a case against them. The case is known as the Lahore Conspiracy Case is also known for the hunger strike, which culminated into the death of Jatin Das on 13th September 1929 after 64 day-long fast. "Another name has been added to the long and splendid roll of Indian martyrs. Let us bow our heads and pray for strength to act to carry on the struggle, however long it may be and whatever consequences. till the victory is ours". This was what Jawaharlal Nehru said while commenting on the death of Jatin Das.

Nehru Committee Report
What the Indians did to oppose the Simon Commission and avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai was one of the two important aspects of the national movement after 1927. The other was their resolve to show that they knew how to work out a people centric and nation-oriented constitutional framework. And they did do that. They organised an All Party Conference, which took less than a year to come out with a remarkable constitutional document. Motilal Nehru was the chief draftsman of the report. Therefore, it is known as the Nehru Committee Report. It, among other things, provided for fundamental rights of the type we enjoy today. Besides, it demanded Dominion Status or self-rule of the kind as it existed in other British colonies like Canada and Australia. It also favoured adult franchise, independent judiciary and reorganization of provincial boundaries on a linguistic basis.

Parting of the Way
However, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, an important member of the All Party Conference, rejected the report. He did so on the ground that the report was silent on his demands. Thereafter, he joined the Mohammad Shafi group, which stood for two-nation theory . The Congress, the Hindu Mahasabha and other members of the All Party Conference regarded all the demands of Jinnah communal, divisive and harmful for the country.Some of the demands of Jinnah included one-third representation to the Muslims in the Central Assembly, representation to the Muslims in proportion to their population in Punjab and Bengal and creation of three new Muslim- majority provinces(Sind, Baluchistan and North-West Frontier Province). After December 1928, Jinnah adopted a course which was only to end in the partition of India and establishment of a separate Muslim state. In March 1929, he put forward his "Fourteen Points", known as "Jinnah Report". These reiterated the demands for new Muslim-majority provinces, full provincial autonomy and one-third representation to the Muslims at the Centre plus separate electorates for the Muslims. Aga Khan and Ali brothers gave their full support to Jinnah and promo-ted the politics of  separatism.

Dominion Status and Subhas Chandra Bose
Meanwhile, the Congress held its annual session at Calcutta in December 1928. It was presided over by Motilal Nehru. The Congress accepted the Nehru Committee Report and asked the British to accept it in full. The Congress also warned the English government that it will demand Purna Swaraj (complete independence ) in case of its Dominion Status plea was not accepted within one year. But the British Government did not pay any heed to the Congress Suggestion and warning. How ever, this was not unexpected.  Subhas Chandra Bose, who had opposed the Dominion Status goal in Calcutta and favoured independence, had already told the Congress that the British Government would not concede this demand without a struggle. In fact, he had moved and amendment for independence which had been defeated by a narrow margin.

Demand for Purna Swaraj
The failure of the British Government to give Dominion Status to India and several other developments in 1929 hardened the Congress attitude. Some of the most noteworthy developments were the arrest of Gandhi at Calcutta in March and labour unrest on a very large scale in places like Bombay, Calcutta and Jamshedpur. There were more than 200 strikes and lock-outs in that year involving no less than five lakh workers. Besides the Indians, especially the younger generation and leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru and Satyamurty had been demanding complete independence. It was under these circumstances that the Congress session was held at Lahore in December 1929. The session of the Congress was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.
                  The Congress under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru rejected the 1928 Dominion Status goal as a timid ideal. Instead, it demanded Purna swaraj. At mid-night on 31st December 1929, the national tri-colour was unfurled at the bank of river Ravi amidst the "Bande Mataram" and "Inquilab Zindabad" slogans. Besides, the nation was asked by the Congress to observe 26 January as Independence Day every year. Accordingly, on 26th January 1930, the whole country observed Independence Day with dedication and zeal. Ever since, 26th January has become a red-letter day for all of us.
                  The struggle for Purna Swaraj begun under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. His methods were non-violent, noble and effective. He knew the kind of problems his countrymen had been facing under the British rule. The Indians were also convinced that he alone could lead them aright and achieve freedom for India from the oppressive foreign rule.

Civil Disobedience Movement
The Civil Disobedience Movement started by the Congress under the leadership of Gandhi to achieve Purna Swaraj was different from the Non-cooperation Movement. Its goal and methods to achieve it were different. The goal this time was complete independence. It was to be achieved by breaking the law. Land revenue was also not to be paid to the government. Foreign goods too were to be boycotted. The freedom loving Indians were also to organize big protest, demonstrations or satyagrahas all over the country peacefully to show their resolve. In other words, the methods required the Indians to defy the government at all levels and make its functioning difficult and impossible.

The Dandi March
The Civil Disobedience Movement was actually started on 12th March 1930. It was on this day that Gandhi and 78 ashram members, including Sarojini Naidu, left Sabarmati in Ahmedabad for Dandi, a village on the Gujarat sea-coast to break the salt laws. This March is popularly known as 'Dandi March'. Gandhi and thousands of Indians, who had joined him during the course of the march, reached the sea on 6th April, Gandhi broke the salt laws the same day by making some salt from sea water. It was an illegal action. Making of salt was the government monopoly. Breaking the Salt Laws, Gandhi said :  "Our cause is strong, our means the purest and God is with us. There is no defeat for Satyagrahis till they give up the truth".
                     The breaking of salt laws by Gandhi was followed by similar actions in differnt parts of India, where salt was being made. Salt Satyagraha became a very effective movement in the coastal areas of Cuttack, Puri and Balasore districts (Orissa). C. Rajagopalachari organized a march just like the Dandi March from Trichy to Vedaranyam on Tanjore Coast to break the salt laws. similar marches were organised in Guntur district by Konda  Venkatapayya. In Malabar, such marches were organised by Kelappan, a Congress leader. All this changed the political atmosphere in India and the government got frightened.

People's Participation
The people, including women and teenagers, peasants and workers, the business community and the rich and the poor, all joined the movement. The participation of the tribals of the Central Provinces, Maharashtra, Bihar and Assam and of the hill people of Kangra in Punjab was equally significant. Largely attended protest demonstrations and complete hartals became order of the day. The Muslim League leaders and their followers did not take part in the movement.
                      The people did not pay taxes and land revenue to the government. There were several cases of public bonfire of foreign cloth and other goods. Thousands of women took part in picketing shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. Many of them also sold salt. The role played by such women organisations as Desh Sevika Sangh and Nari Satyagraha Samiti of Urmila Devi (Calcutta ) was very remarkable. People in different parts of India also clashed with the police. Some of these places were Calcutta, Madras and Karachi. The Pathan Muslims of North West Frontier Province (now in Pakistan) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, a disciple of Gandhi, Bengal revolutionaries under Surya Sen and the industrial workers in Sholapur made the things very difficult for the British. The role played by the Manipuri people in this regard was very significant Nagaland also produced a great heroine Rani Gaidilieu. She was just thirteen years of age when she joined the freedom struggle. The government arrested her in 1932 and sentenced her to life imprisonment . The people in South India, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra participated in the movement in a big way.

The British Reaction
The British adopted ruthless measures to crush the movement. The peaceful Satyagrahis, including women and teenagers, were badly beaten by the police. At several places, the police opened fire. Several Indians died. Over 90,000 Indians were arrested. In Delhi alone, over 1500 women were arrested. The British did not spare even great leaders like Khan abdul Gaffar Khan, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel. Other leaders like Rajagopalachari, Abbas Tayabji, Madan Mohan Malaviya, K. M. Munshi, Mahadev Desai, J. M. Sengupta and Vithalbhai Patel, were arrested and put behind the bars. Gandhi too was arrestd on 5th May 1930. In Peshawar, the army platoons opened fire on peaceful Pathans, killing several of them. The Hindu soldiers of the Garhwal Rifles under Chander Singh Garhwali, who refused to open fire on the unarmed Pathans, were disarmed and imprisoned. The British even used aerial bombardment to crush the followers of Abdul Gaffar Khan. In May, the British imposed Martial Law on Sholapur. So much so, the British confiscated the agricultural land, household goods and cattle of the peasants when they refused to pay land revenue and other taxes. But the British Government failed to crush the freedom struggle.

Communalization through Constitutional Process
When the Indians were going to the jail and facing lathi blows and bullets, the British Government through of a constitutional process which was aimed at reducing the whole freedom struggle to the level of negotiations between different conflicting interests. In fact, the basic aim of the British was to politicise the struggle for Indian freedom  and treat the Congress as one of the several political parties and interests. It was in this background that the government convened a Round Table Conference in London in November 1930. It was to discuss the Indian issues and demands as well as the Simon Commission proposals. The Congress, which represented a vast majority of the Indian population, boycotted this Conference.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact
This British Government was fully aware that the Indians will accept only those reforms which were acceptable to the Congress. It also recognized that the Congress cooperation was necessary that the Congress cooperation was necessary to restore peace in India. Therefore, Lord Irwin, Governor-General of India, made serious efforts in early 1931 to ensure the Congress participation in the Second Round Table Conference. It was a strategic move to trap Gandhi and snatch from his hands the whole political initiative. As a result, Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. According to this Pact, the government was to release all the political prisoners who had not taken to violent methods during the Civil Disobedience Movement. This pact also required the Congress to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.
                      Consequently, the Congress agreed to take part in the Second Round Table Conference. It persuaded Mahatma Gandhi to go to London and participate in the Conference. It was a one-man delegation. This Conference, like the First Round Table Conference, ended in a deadlock. The main reason was the demand of the Muslims, the Anglo-Indians, the Europeans, the Indian Christians and the depressed castes in favour of separate  electorates. All these groups had come together in a 'minority pact' for joint action. Gandhi tried his best to persuade these groups not to make constitutional advance conditional on a solution to the communal problem, but did not succeed. Hence, Gandhi returned to India and revived the Civil Disobedience Movement. To crush the movement, the British Government again took recourse to very cruel methods.The police inflicted all kinds of cruelties on the Indians. The police repression was directed against all without any exception. The government arrested Gandhi and other popular leaders.

The Communal Award of 1932
On 16th August 1932, the British Prime Minister announced his Communal Award. It not only provided communal electorates for the Muslims and the Sikhs, but also for the members of the depressed communities Gandhi and the Congress condemned this Award as a sinister plan worked out to weaken the freedom struggle. He was of the view that the Communal Award was designed to destroy the Indian society and play the Hindus against the Muslims. Gandhi, who was in Yervada jail that time, started and indefinite fast on 20th September 1932, to force the British Prime Minister to withdraw that part of the part of the Award which was applicable to the depressed communities.
                      The action of Gandhi created a commotion throughout the country. The people got extremely worried for their great leader. Madan Mohan Malaviya and others approached B. R. Ambedkar, who happened to be a signatory to the 'minority pact', and asked him not to press his demand for separate electorates for the depressed communities. And, Ambedkar agreed . This led to the signing of the Poona Pact on 25th September 1932. It recommended joint electorates with reserved seats for the members of the depressed communities. The British accepted it and Gandhi broke his fast. In the meanwhile, the Third Round Table Conference was held in London in November 1932, but again with no concrete results. The Congress did not take part in the third and final Round Table Conference.

Indians : The Sole Factor
The Civil Disobedience Movement continued for some more time and was finally withdrawn in 1934. Though the Congress could not achieve the stated goal, it did succeed in arousing nationalism. In fact, it led to national upsurge all over the country. The same year the Congress adopted a significant resolution asking the British Government to set up a Constituent Assembly elected on an adult franchise. The resolution made it clear that the Indians alone had the right to decide the form of government under which they would like to shape their destiny.

Revolutionary Activities
The period of Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed several daring feats performed by the revolutionaries, including women revolutionaries, in different parts of India. They were restless to adopt a short-cut to freedom.They took to the path of armed struggle and many local groups emerged in United Provinces, Punjab and Bengal. Chandrashekhar Azad, along with other revolutionaries, made an attempt to blow up the special train of the Viceroy near Delhi, in December 1929 but failed. Ultimately, he sacrificed his life at the altar of the country on 27th February 1931. He was pierced with bullets in a park at Allahabad. The news of his martyrdom sent a shock wave throughout the country.
                  The revolutionaries led by Surya Sen thrilled the whole country on 18th April 1930  by raiding the port of Chittangong and seizing the local armoury. They raised the slogan of " Gandhiji's Raj has come" . Several revolutionaries, including brave women like Pritilata Wadedar and Kalpana Dutt, were with Surya Sen. However, the counter-attack by the British neutralised the Chittagong coup and resulted in the martyrdom of 12 revolutionaries on 22nd April 1930.
                 The Chittagong incident was followed by a series of attacks and murders of leading Englishmen in Bengal. The leading role in this regard was played by Binay Krishna Boose, Badal and Dinesh. On 8th December 1930, they raided the government headquarters in the Writers' Building, Calcutta and shot at Colonel Simpson. Convince that it was impossible to escape, Bose and Badal shot themselves dead. Dinesh did manage to escape. Ultimately, he too was apprehended and executed. The European Club in Chittagong was attacked with bomb and pistols on 22nd September 1932, by revolutionaries led by Pritilata Wadedar . During the attack, she got injured. Immediately thereafter, she killed herself to avoid arrest. Surya Sen, who was still at large, was finally arrested in February 1933 and hanged . In between, he had, in collaboration with his associates like Nirmal Sen and Apurba Sen, shot dead Captain Cameron.
                 The revolutionaries like Joti Jibon Ghose, Bimal Dasgupta, Pradyut Kumar Bhattachary  and Probhansu Pal killed several leading Englishmen. The school girls like Suniti Chowdhury and Santi Ghose also did not lag behind. They shot dead District Magistrate of Tripura, Stevens. Another valiant girl, Bina Das, made an abortive attempt on the life of he Bengal Governor, Stanley Jackson, in the Calcutta Univesity in 1932. All these activities, including the murder of the former Punjab Lt. Governor Sir Michael O'Dwyer by Udham Singh in London on 13th March 1940 alarmed the authorities. At the same time, these activities inspired many an Indian to lay down their lives for the cause of the country.
                  The period after 1930 also witnessed the growth of trade union and peasant activities. One of the major developments of the peasant activities was the formation of the first ever all India peasant organisation in 1936 under the persidentship of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. It was called the All-India Kissan Sabha. Trade Unions too were established in different cities and towns.

The States People's Movements
You will be surprised to know that there were virtually two Indians during the period of your study. One was under the direct rule of the British. It was called British India. The other was ruled by the Indian princes and nawabs. It was known as princely states. There were about 560 big and small princely states. The British Government could interfere in the day-to-day working of these states. All these princes worked under the indirect control of their British masters and the English Political Residents. So much so, the British Government used them to weaken the democratic forces and freedom struggle that was going on in British India. There were many princes who willingly joined hands with the British in order to check the pro-independence and pro-democracy movements in British India. Their main aim was to protect and advance their own personal interests and rule over the people in despotic ways.
                   The social, economic and political life of the people in princely states was very miserable. It was even worse in many ways when we compare it with the one enjoyed by the people in British India. The people in most of the princely states did not have civil and democratic rights. They had no say in the political and economic matters. The press did not enjoy freedom. The people could not organise public meetings to discuss political and other issues concerning their well-being. Justice was denied to them. Educational facilities were available on a very limited scale. Jammu and Kashmir, Travancore, Baroda and Mysore were perhaps the only states where a few steps were taken by the princes to improve the social, economic and political life of the people. For example, the princes of these states used to spend substantial amount for the promotion of education among the masses. The system of administration of justice too was reorganised by them and the people were given the right to seek justice. The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, even passed a few Acts to improve the life and status of the peasantry and weaker sections. These Acts also laid down that no court shall discriminate between man and man on the ground of caste or creed.

Congress and Princely India
It is important to note that the Congress did not take any serious interest in princely states until 1938. Nor did it ever try to take up the problems being faced by the people residing there. It was only in 1938 that the Congress under Subhas Chandra Bose declared that it was fighting for the fighting for the independence of the entire country and not just British India. The Congress took another step in 1939, where Jawaharlal Nehru became the President of the All-India states People's Conference. He practically endorsed the Bose line. These steps thus brought princely states under the direct influence of the Congress. The result was that the pro-people movements already going on in different parts of princely states since 1920 gained more momentum and the freedom struggle became stronger.
               Some of the popular leaders and public-spirited persons, who had played and important role in princely states, were Sewa Singh (Punjab), Sarangadhar Das (Orissa), Balwant Rai Mehta and Vijay Jamnalal Bajaj (Gujrat) and Manikya Lal Verma and Vijay Singh Pathak (Rajasthan), and Ramananda Tirtha (Hyderabad). These and several others with mass appeal were responsible for the establishment of Praja Mandals and demanded civil liberties and responsible government in their states. The formation of the All-India States People's Conference in 1927 was also the result of their efforts. The chief objective of all these  organisations was to obtain for the people rule of law and democracy and integrate princely states fully with India. These movements led to political consciousness and created a new spirit of unity among the people of the states.

Constitutional Development
You have already read that the British Government had held three Round Table Conferences to break the political deadlock in India, but had failed. Thereafter, the British Prime Minister had announce certain proposals regarding the constitutional reforms in India.The Indians rejected all these proposals as anti-people and anti-democracy. On the contrary, the Indian leaders demanded the setting up of a Constituent Assembly elected on an adult franchise. They declared that they will accept only that constitution which was framed by the Indian Constituent Assembly.

The 1935 Act
However, the Indian political parties were not one as far as their views on the country's future structure of government were concerned.The Muslim  League wanted a weak Center and acceptance of its communal demands. The Congress stood for strong Centre and secular polity. The British Government exploited these contradictions in the political views of he Congress and the League. In March 1933, it issued a White paper containing certain proposals regarding the constitutional reforms in India. It also set up a joint Parliamentary Committee to go into the whole constitutional issue. This Committee was to suggest a reform scheme for India. But the scheme it recommended was worse. It was aimed at strengthening the British hold over India and denying the Indians their fundamental political and democratic rights.
                   Naturally, the Indian criticised the scheme as recommended by this Committee. They demanded a constitution that could empower them to shape and control fully their political and economic future. But the British Government did not care for the Indian sentiments. Instead, it passed and Act, called the Government of India Act of 1935. The Act came into force on 1st April 1937 and it was basically based on the schemes the Indian leadership had already rejected. This shows how indifferent the British Government was to the Indian needs.

False Claims
The British Government asserted that the 1935 Act was a great step forward as far as the empowerment of the Indians was concerned. For instance, it said that the Act provided for provincial autonomy and federalisation of the Indian polity. This was s false claim. The fact was that the 1935 Act, like the earlier Acts, invested the provincial governors with veto powers in sphers political and economic. They could override the majority or views of the elected assemblies and implement their own ideas aimed at promoting the British interests. On the contrary, the elected assemblies were unreal and ineffective for all practical purposes. They were so weak that they could not formulate policies according to the needs of the people. The ministers could give advice, but their views could be rejected. In addition, the governors could take over the administration of provinces under Section 93 of the 1935 Act.
                   Similarly, the scheme of federation as laid down by the Act was the negation of the very idea of federation . While the British India had no choice but to become part of the proposed federation, the princely states had the option to join or not to join it. Moreover, the whole scheme had been worked out to play the princes against the democratic forces in British India and harm the freedom struggle.
                    It was under these circumstances that the Congress and the League rejected outright the 1935 Act. Significantly, however, both the parties contested the 1937 elections to the provincial assemblies held under this Act. The Congress made it clear in the beginning that it was contesting elections not to seek power or office. It declared that its sole aim was to obtain a popular mandate against what Jawaharlal Nehru had described as "a charter of slavery". In other words, it stated that it will use the people's mandate to force the British Government to withdraw the 1935 Act. Further, the Federal part of the Constitution never came into effect as the princes did not join it.

Elections, Congress and The League
The Congress won an absolute majority in five of the eleven British Indian Provinces. In four provinces, it emerges as a single largest party. The performance of the Muslim League, which always claimed that it represented the will of the Indian Muslims, was extremely poor . It won only 109 of the 482 seats allotted to the Muslims. Its defeat in the Muslim-majority provinces like North-West Frontier Province,Sind, Bengal and Punjab was even more humiliating. These elections proved that a vast majority of the Muslims was opposed to the Muslim League. These also showed that in the Muslim-majority provinces leaders like Allah Bakash (Sind) , Sikandar Hayat KIhan (Punjab), Fazlul Haq(Bengal),Abdul Gaffar Khan (North-West Frontier province) Sadullah Khan(Assam were the actual Muslim leaders.
                       The Congress honoured its word given at the time of elections and refused to form ministries in the provinces. Later, however, it formed ministries in nine provinces. It did so after obtaining an assurance from the Governor-General of India that Provincial Governors will not interfere in the day-to-day administration. In Bengal and Punjab, non-Congress ministries functioned. The parties, which formed the governments in these provinces, were the Krishak Praja Party and the Unionist Party, respectively.
                       Though the Congress ministries failed to introduce radical changes, they did try to improve the life of the people. The Congress governments removed restrictions on the press and permitted peasant organisations and trade unions to function freely. In addition, they enacted agrarian legislation, undertook measures to uplift the depressed classes and promoted education. They also paid attention to village and modern industries.
                     It is important to note that the Muslim League did not like the formation of the Congress-led ministries. Its basic objection was that the Congress had ignored the Muslim League legislators while forming governments in the provinces. Jinnah found himself in wilderness. His League tried desperately to form a coalition ministry with the Congress in United Provinces. But the Congress conditions were not acceptable to it. This became a turning point for Jinnah, He entered into a secret correspondence with Sir Mohammad Iqbal, a poet, and decided to openly adopt the plank of Muslim separatism. Jinnah called the Muslim League session in 1937 at Lucknow, where he dubbed the Congress rule as the Hindu rule and denounced the Congress as a fascist party. He also dubbed Mahatma Gandhi as a Hindu revivalist. It was at this session that the Muslims were exhorted not to sing Bande Mataram.
                         True to his words Jinnah unleashed a vigrous propaganda against the Congress governments and levelled wild charges against them. The Muslim League also published a few documents containing details of atrocities allegedly committed by the Hindus on the Muslims and serious charges against the Congress governments. When leading Congress leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Dr. Rajendra Prasad challenged Jinnah and his Muslim League to prove their charges, they did not come forward. Instead, Jinnah declared that he was convinced that the Muslims could neither expect justice  nor fair play under the Hindu-dominated Congress governments. He also started preaching two-nation theory with renewed vigour. His whole objective was to inflame communal feelings among the Muslims and prepare the ground for separation.
                 

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SSC to Hold Re-Examination at Identified Centers

Staff Selection Commission conducted Combined Graduate Level Examination 2013 (Tier I) on April 21, 2013 and May 19, 2013. The Tier-II Exam was held on September 29, 2013. There have been reports of use of unfair means at a number of centres identified by investigation agency in Tier I and II. 

Keeping in view the sanctity of the Examination, interest of the candidates and the investigation report received from Delhi Police it has been decided by the Government to hold re-examination of Tier-I and II at identified centres from where reports of use of unfair means has been received. The list of these centres will be placed on the Commission’s website (www.ssc.nic.in) shortly. Age relaxation, where required would be permitted to appear for re-examination. 

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Combined Engineering Assistant in Prasar Bharti Examination 2013 Result Declared

Staff Selection Commission has declared the result for combined recruitment of the post for assistant engineer in Prasar Bharti  exam 2013. All appeared candidates can check their result at following link

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SSC Delhi Police Sub-inspector Examination 2013 Result Declared

Staff Selection Commission (SSC) has declared Paper II result for the recruitment to the post of Delhi Police,CAPFs, Assistant sub-inspector in CISF Examination-2013 which was conducted on 6th October, 2013 for candidates qualified in Paper I. The candidates who have qualified in paper II will call for Interview. All appeared candidates in paper II can check their Result at following link:

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SSC Stenographers (Grade C & D) Examination 2013 Answer Key

Staff Selection Commission (SSC) has issued Answer Key of Stenographers (Grade C & D) Examination-2013 which was conducted on 29th December, 2013 across India at various centers by SSC. The candidates, who has appeared in exam, can check the answer key for estimation of marks. Discrepancies relating to question/incorrect keys,if any, should be brought into the notice of under secretary on or before 5th February,2014. for Answer key and Write up please click at below

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Last date for Representations: 5th February,2014

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Saina wins Syed Modi Grand Prix

India ace shuttler Saina Nehwal today snapped her 15 months title drought, clinching the Syed Modi International India Grand Prix Gold badminton crown with a straight-game victory over compatriot P V Sindhu in the women’s singles competition, here today.

The London Olympics bronze medallist staved off the challenge from Sindhu 21—14, 21—17 in the women’s singles summit clash, which lasted 40 minutes at the Babu Banarasi Das Indoor Stadium here.

The two—time champion was tested by her younger colleague but Saina kept her nerve to eventually break a 15-month title drought after appearing in her 22nd final of her international career.

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Sushil Koirala elected PP leader of NC, set to become PM

Sushil Koirala is set to become Nepal’s next Prime Minister after being elected on Sunday as the Parliamentary Party leader of the Nepali Congress, which emerged as the single largest party in the Constituent Assembly elections.

The 74-year-old Nepali Congress president defeated his rival senior party leader and three-time Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba by 16 votes in the Parliamentary Party election.

Of the total 194 valid votes, Mr. Koirala secured 105 votes while Mr. Deuba got 89 votes.

Nepali Congress is the largest party in the 601-seat Constituent Assembly after it secured 196 seats in the November 19 polls.

Mr. Koirala, being the Parliamentary Party leader of the Nepali Congress, the largest party in the Constituent Assembly, is most likely to be the next Prime Minister of Nepal.

Nepali Congress, however, needs support from either CPN-UML or Unified CPN-Maoist and other fringe parties to reach the magical number of 301 seats in the Constituent Assembly to form the government.

Negotiations have begun on power sharing and distributing key posts among Nepali Congress, and UCPN-Maoist and CPN-UML leaders.

Parliamentary party leader will be the legitimate candidate to become the Prime Minister.

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Wawrinka defeats injured Nadal, wins Australian Open

Stanislas Wawrinka held off an injured Rafael Nadal to win his first Grand Slam title with a 6—3, 6—2, 3—6, 6—3 victory on Sunday in the Australian Open final.

The 28-year-old Swiss player had never taken a set off Nadal in 12 previous meetings, but dominated from the start at Melbourne Park.

Nadal appeared to be on the verge of retiring in the second set, when he hurt his back and needed a medical time out.

Nadal has had a terrible stretch with injuries at the Australian Open, and has described it as his unluckiest Grand Slam. He missed the 2013 edition during a seven-month layoff with knee injuries and illness, and his quarterfinal losses in 2010 and 2011 were affected by injuries.

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65th Republic Day celebrations: India honours its bravehearts and displays cultural heritage

Colourful images of India’s cultural heritage, manoeuvres by fighter aircraft,  military prowess and march past by armed forces were on majestic display at Rajpath on Sunday as the nation celebrated its 65th Republic Day amid tight security.

Marching down from the seat of power at Raisina Hills to Red Fort, the parade showcased India’s ‘unity in diversity’ and defence capability

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Padma Awards full list: Narendra Dabholkar, Kamal Haasan to be honoured

Following is the list of the 127 awardees of Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri which were announced on the eve of the 65th Republic day.

Padma Vibhushan

Dr Raghunath A Mashelkar, Science and Engineering, Maharashtra

B K S Iyengar, Yoga, Maharashtra

Padma Bhushan

Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Art-Painting, Gujarat

Begum Parveen Sultana, Art-Classical Singing, Maharashtra

T H Vinayakram, Art-Ghatam Artist, Tamil Nadu

Kamala Haasan, Art-Cinema, Tamil Nadu

Justice Dalveer Bhandari, Public Affairs, Delhi

Prof Padmanabhan Balaram, Science and Engineering, Karnataka

Prof Jyeshtharaj Joshi, Science and Engineering, Maharashtra

Dr Madappa Mahadevappa, Science and Engineering, Karnataka

Dr Thirumalachari Ramasami, Science and Engineering, Delhi

Dr Vinod Prakash Sharma, Science and Engineering, Delhi

Dr Radhakrishnan Koppillil, Science and Engineering, Karnataka

Dr Mrityunjay Athreya, Literature and Education, Delhi

Anita Desai, Literature and Education, Delhi

Dr Dhirubhai Thaker, Literature and Education, Gujarat

Vairamuthu Ramasamy Thevar, Literature and Education, Tamil Nadu

Ruskin Bond, Literature and Education, Uttarakhand

Pullela Gopichand, Sports-Badminton, Andhra Pradesh

Leander Paes, Sports-Tennis, Maharashtra

Vijayendra Nath Kaul, Civil Service, Delhi

Late Justice Jagdish Sharan Verma, Public Affairs, Uttar Pradesh

Late Dr Anumolu Ramakrishna, Science and Engineering, Andhra Pradesh

Prof Anisuzzaman, Literature and Education, Bangladesh

Prof Lloyd I Rudolph, Literature and Education, USA

Prof Susanne H Rudolph, Literature and Education, USA

Dr (Smt) Neelam Kler, Medicine- Neonatology, Delhi

Padma Shri

Mohammad Ali Baig,    Art-Theatre, Andhra Pradesh

Nayana Apte Joshi, Art, Maharashtra

Musafir Ram Bhardwaj, Art-Instrumental Music- Pauna Manjha, Himachal Pradesh

Sabitri Chatterjee, Art-Film, West Bengal

Prof Biman Bihari Das, Art-Sculptor, Delhi

Sunil Das, Art-Painting, West Bengal

Elam Endira Devi, Art-Manipuri Dance, Manipur

Vijay Ghate, Art-Instrumental Music- Tabla, Maharashtra

Rani Karnaa, Art-Kathak, West Bengal

Bansi Kaul, Art-Theatre, Jammu and Kashmir

Ustad Moinuddin Khan, Art-Instrumental Music-Sarangi Player, Rajasthan

Geeta Mahalik, Art-Odishi Dance, Delhi

Paresh Maity, Art-Painting, Delhi

Ram Mohan, Art-Film Animation, Maharashtra

Sudarsan Pattnaik, Art-Sand artist, Odisha

Paresh Rawal, Art-Cinema and Theatre, Maharashtra

Wendell Augustine Rodricks, Art-Fashion Designing, Goa

Prof Kalamandalam Sathyabhama, Art-Mohini Attam, Kerala

Shri Anuj (Ramanuj) Sharma, Art-Performing Art, Chhattisgarh

Santosh Sivan, Art- Film, Tamil Nadu

Supriya Dev, Art-Bengali Cinema, West Bengal

Sooni Taraporevala, Art- Script Writing, Maharashtra

Vidya Balan, Art-Cinema, Maharashtra

Durga Jain, Social Work, Maharashtra

Dr Rama Rao Anumolu, Social Work, Andhra Pradesh

Dr Brahm Dutt, Social Work, Haryana

Mukul Chandra Goswami, Social Work, Assam

J L Kaul, Social Work, Delhi

Mathurbhai Madhabhai Savani, Social Work, Gujarat

Tashi Tondup, Public Affairs, Jammu and Kashmir

Dr Hasmukh Chamanlal Shah, Public Affairs, Gujarat

Sekhar Basu, Science and Engineering, Maharashtra

Madhavan Chandradathan, Science and Engineering, Kerala.

Sushanta Kumar Dattagupta, Science and Engineering, West Bengal

Dr Ravi Bhushan Grover, Science and Engineering, Maharashtra

Prof Eluvathingal Devassy Jemmis, Science and Engineering, Karnataka

Ramkrishna V HosuR, Science and Engineering, Maharashtra

Dr Ajay Kumar Parida, Science and Engineering, Tamil Nadu

Dr Malapaka Yajneswara Satyanarayana Prasad, Science and Engineering, Andhra Pradesh

Kiran Kumar Alur Seelin, Science and Engineering, Gujarat

Dr Brahma Singh, Science and Engineering, Delhi

Prof Vinod Kumar Singh, Science and Engineering, Madhya Pradesh

Dr Govindan Sundararajan, Science and Engineering, Andhra Pradesh

Ramaswamy R Iyer, Science and Engineering, Delhi

Dr Jayanta Kumar Ghosh, Science and Engineering, West Bengal

Ravi Kumar NarrA, Trade and Industry, Andhra Pradesh

Rajesh Saraiya, Trade and Industry, Maharashtra

Mallika Srinivasan, Trade and Industry, Tamil Nadu

Pratap Govindrao Pawar, Trade and Industry, Maharashtra

Dr Kiritkumar Mansukhlal Acharya, Medicine- Dermatology, Gujarat

Dr Balram Bhargava, Medicine- Cardiology, Uttar Pradesh

Prof (Dr) Indra Chakravarty, Medicine- Health and Hygiene, West Bengal

Dr Ramakant Krishnaji Deshpande, Medicine- Oncology, Maharashtra

Prof (Dr) Pawan Raj Goyal, Medicine- Chest Disease, Haryana

Prof Amod Gupta, Medicine- Opthalmology, Haryana

Prof (Dr) Daya Kishore Hazra, Medicine, Uttar Pradesh

Prof (Dr) Thenumgal Poulose Jacob, Medicine- Vascular Surgery, Tamil Nadu

Prof (Dr) Shashank R Joshi, Medicine- Endocrinology, Maharashtra

Prof Hakim Syed Khaleefathullah, Medicine- Unani Medicine, Tamil Nadu

Dr Milind Vasant Kirtane, Medicine- ENT Surgery, Maharashtra

Dr Lalit Kumar, Medicine- Oncology, Delhi

Dr Mohan Mishra, Medicine, Bihar

Dr M Subhadra Nair, Medicine- Gyneacology, Kerala

Dr Ashok Panagariya, Medicine- Neurology, Rajasthan

Dr Narendra Kumar Pandey, Medicine- Surgery, Haryana

Dr Sunil Pradhan, Medicine- Neurology, Uttar Pradesh

Dr Ashok Rajgopal, Medicine- Orthopaedics, Delhi

Dr Kamini A Rao, Medicine- Reproductive Medicine, Karnataka

Dr Sarbeswar Sahariah,

Medicine- Surgery, Andhra Pradesh

Prof Om Prakash Upadhyaya, Medicine, Punjab

Prof (Dr) Mahesh Verma, Medicine- Dental Science, Delhi

Dr J S Titiyal, Medicine-Opthalmology, Delhi

Dr Nitish Naik, Medicine- Cardiology, Delhi

Dr Surbrat Kumar Acharya, Medicine-Gastroentrology, Delhi

Dr Rajesh Kumar Grover, Medicine-Oncology, Delhi

Dr Naheed Abidi, Literature and Education, Uttar Pradesh

Prof Ashok Chakradhar, Literature and Education, Delhi

Chhakchhuak Chhuanvawra, Literature and Education, Mizoram

Keki N Daruwalla, Literature and Education, Delhi

Prof Ganesh Narayandas Devi, Literature and Education, Gujarat

Prof Kolakaluri Enoch, Literature and Education, Andhra Pradesh

Prof (Dr) Ved Kumari Ghai, Literature and Education, Jammu and Kashmir

Smt Manorama Jafa, Literature and Education, Delhi

Prof Rehana Khatoon, Literature and Education, Delhi

Dr Waikhom Gojen Meeitei, Literature and Education, Manipur

Vishnu Narayanan Namboothiri, Literature and Education, Kerala

Prof Dinesh Singh, Literature and Education, Delhi

Dr (Mrs) P Kilemsungla, Literature and Education, Nagaland

Anjum Chopra, Sports- Cricket, Delhi

Sunil Dabas, Sports- Kabbadi, Haryana

Love Raj Singh Dharmshaktu, Sports- Mountaineering, Delhi

Dipika Rebecca Pallikal, Sports- Squash, Tamil Nadu

H Boniface Prabhu, Sports- Wheelchair Tennis, Karnataka

Yuvraj Singh, Sports- Cricket, Haryana

Mamta Sodha, Sports- Mountaineering, Haryana

Parveen Talha, Civil Service, Uttar Pradesh

Late Dr Narendra Achyut Dabholkar, Social Work Maharashtra

Ashok Kumar Mago, Trade and Industry, USA

Siddharth Mukherjee, Medicine-Oncology, USA

Dr Vamsi Mootha, Medicine- Biomedical Research, USA

Dr Sengaku Mayeda, Literature and Education, Japan.

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History: British Policies And Indian Upheavals

Vasco-de-Gama was the first European navigator who reached India in 1498 . He had reached India with the help of an Indian. It was a revolutionary news for the whole of Europe It gave an opportunity to the Europeans like the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British to exploit India. Soon India became a land of free looters.
However, it was the English East India Company which met with a success. All others struggled and fought with their British rivals to establish their foothold in India, but failed. They could not match the British diplomacy and treachery plus their firm determination. Queen Elizabeth of England had granted the privilege to the East India Company to carry on the trading activities in the East India Company  to carry on the trading activities in the East as early as on 31
December , 1600, The English Indian company for over 150 years remained a trading company . It took another 100 years to establish its away over a large part of India and rule over her directly or indirectly on behalf of the British Government . In 1858, the East India Company was deprived of its power and the Government of India was brought under the British Crown . It is interesting to note that the rise and growth of British rule in India coincided with the industrial revolution in Europe . The immediate result of the revolution was the emergence of machine civilisaton which required new markets and more raw materials.
IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE
The aim of the British policies was to consolidate and prolong their rule over India. These were also designed to enable the British to exploit, loot and plunder the Indians and their natural resources. Science and technology considerably helped them in their exploitative scheme. Consequently, the impact of the British rule in India was disastrous.
The revenue policy adopted by the British ruined the small farmers and many others dependent on agriculture. The administrators were mainly interested in heavy revenue collection. The ruthless collection of revenue in cash or kind left nothing with their farmers to sustain production and feed their own families. As a result, quite a large number of farmers deserted their villages. This development, in its turn, led to a steep fall in agricultural production and severe famines. It also resulted in the indebtedness of the farmers and poverty in the countryside.
The industrial policy of the British crippled the town handicrafts and the Indian cottage industries. It rendered millions of the Indian artisans and craftsmen jobless. For the British, Manchester, Lancashire and other fast growing industrial towns in England like Glasgow were important. The aim of the policy of taxation adopted by the British from time to time was not different. The imposition of heavy excise duty on the Indian-made goods and virtually no or a little import duty on the British-made goods were a device designed to ensure precendence of the English goods over the Indian goods. In certain cases, duties levied were as high as 400 percent. This policy harmed the interests of the Indian traders and industrialists. The principle of free trade also denied the Indian handicrafts any protection. With the result, the Indian exports fell rapidly. All this increased the miseries of the people of India. But the British Government did nothing to improve their condition. On the other hand, it compelled the already half-starved Indian to pay tax “ on the salt he eats, on the oil he burns, on the strip of cotton cloth which he ties round his loins” and drain their wealth.
The destruction of the country’s traditional economy was one side of the story of the British rule. The other was their policy of racial discrimination. Under this policy, the Indians holding similar positions and in the same departments were treated differently from their British counterparts in terms of wages, powers and status. The modern history is full of such examples which show how contemptuous the British rulers were towards the Indians. This also show that the higher positions in departments like defence, revenue and judicial were the sole preserve of the British. The Indians were considered fit only for petty jobs. The British used to call them “Niggers” .
The British Government worked out and implemented policies which divided the Indian society on caste and communal lines. The purpose behind these policies was to create conditions which could help the British to rule over India smoothly. Yet another purpose of the British was to prove that their culture was more superior, scientific and humane. It was also to convey the feeling that the Indian culture and religion were responsible for all the ills faced by the Indian society. Their whole intention was to create a sense of inferiority complex among the Indians and induce them to support the British in all matters. The British rule, in shout, ruined India politically, culturally and economically. Besides, it also created among the Indians a class of loyalists, first  in the shape of landlords and then the middle classes. All this made the Indians to seethe with anger.
There were several other factors which had also contributed considerably to the Indian unrest. These included indirect encouragement to Christian missionaries, promotion fo English education through the missionary institutions and displacement of Persian as the court and official language.  These had led to the passing of the Religious Disabilities Act ( 1851 ) , the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and large scale unemployment among the Indians.
THE OTHER SIDE
The British took steps from time to time to protect and promote further their political and financial interests and endure safety of their empire in India. Some of these were, the introduction of railway and steamers, post and telegraph system and a uniform administrative system throughout India with some changes here and there. All these steps turned out to be a blessing in disguise for the Indians They enabled the more awakened Indians to understand the implications of the British policies and organize public opinion against them. These also enabled the public-spirited Indians to tour different parts of the country to see for themselves the plight of their countrymen and establish contact with them.
POPULAR REVOLTS
The British policies had offended all sections of Indian society. The Indian princes, who ruled over considerable part of the country, too were unhappy with the British. The British method of playing one prince against the other, Lord Wellesley’s policy of Subsidiary Alliances, Lord Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse and similar other methods were aimed at annexing the princely dominions and enslaving the people. Lord Dalhousie, for example, annexed no less than eight states, including the last two independent states of Punjab (1849) and Awadh (1956), during his rule. He also refused to continue the pension to Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the ex-Peshwa Bajirao II , and denied Rani of Jhansi of her ruling rights. In fact, Lord Curzon and several other British administrators committed many provocative acts.
All these ended the patience of the Indians. Their discontent brust out in local popular revolts in different areas. The Bhils revolted against the British in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In Bihar and Bengal, the Santhals raised a banner of revolt. The Khonds and the Gonds in Orissa were up in arms against the British. The British faced armed rebellions of the Kols in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Similarly, the Mers in Rajasthan, the Kolis in Maharashtra and the Khasis in Meghalaya were in revolt against the British rule. The southern India also witnessed a number of anti-British uprisings(1795-1805). The most powerful uprising was by the Poligars or the zamindars with Marudu Pandyan as one of its great leaders.
The anger against the British rule was confined not just to the civil population. The sepoys or the Indian soldiers in the British Army too had their complaints against the British. They raised a banner of revolt against the British a number of times. Some of the most significant sepoy mutinies were the ones which broke out at Vellore in South India in 1806 and Barrackpore near Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1824. The British Government suppressed all these revolts and mutinies with a heavy hand. In the process, hundreds of Indians, including soldiers, lost their lives. The extent of the British repression can be determined from the fact that more than 15000 rebels, including a number of leaders, were brutally murdered and executed during the famous Santhal tribaluprising of 1855-1856 alone.
UPRISING OF 1857
As described above, all sections of Indian society were feeling alienated from the British for manifold reasons and were keen to get rid of the British colonial domination. Their discontent against the British rule on all counts grew more and more with each passing day. Ultimately, it resulted in the great uprising of 1857. According to Nana Saheb Peshwa’s close associate Azimullah Khan, the setbacks suffered by the British forces in the earlier stages of the Crimean war had also encouraged the hope of rebellion in India. The upheaval of 1857 is described as the first war of Indian independence.
Recent researches have established that the 1857 rebellion was a well-planned affair. It had all India dimensions. Both the sepoys a well as civil popu;ation had been mobilized by the word of mouth and symblolic circulation of lotus flower and chapattis. A date coinciding with the hundredth anniversary of the battle of Plassey had been fixed for the simultaneous uprising all over India. Nana Saheb, son of last Peshwa Bajirao II, was the brain behind the whole plan.
IMMEDIATE CAUSE
The immediate cause was the supply of the greased cartridges to the Indian sepoys, both Hindu and Muslim. This action constituted a grave provocation and regarded by the Indians a great insult to their religions. Why did the Indian soldiers refuse to use the newly supplied cartridges? Because these were smeared with cows and pigs fat forbidden to the Hindus and Muslims, respectively. Their wrapper had to be removed with mouth before the newly introduced rifles could be loaded and used. This action on the part of the British authorities hurt the religious sentiments of the Hindus and the Muslims.
The troops at Dum Dum refused to use these cartridges on 23 January, 1857. On 29 March, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy at Barrackpore, injured an European officer. The british executed him and disarmed and transferred his Native infantry to Meerut. At Meerut, the sepoys, who refused to use these cartridges, were sentenced to ten years imprisonment. They were publicly disgraced and taunted on 9 May. And , on 10 May the three Indian regiments shot their officers and secured the release of the Indian sepoys by breaking open the prisons. Thereafter, they rebels proclaimed the last Mughal scion Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Immediately thereafter, Bahadur Shah ordered a ban on cow slaughter.
Starting at Meerut, the uprising soon spread to many parts of the country. The major centres of the uprising were Awadh, Rohilkhand , Bundelkhand, Agra, Meerut, Allahabad and area around it and western Bihar. The uprising also engulfed areas in southern India. Aurangabad and Kolhapur were the most affected areas. The most prominent leaders of this uprising were Nana Saheb Peshwa, Azimullah Khan, Tantia Tope, Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur (Bihar), Prince Feroze Ahah, Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, Bakhat Khan and Nawab Khan Bahadur of Bareilly and Begum Hazrat Mahal of Lucknow.
COLLAPSE OF THE UPRISING
For a while the sudden outbreak at Meerut and capture of Delhi by the rebels caught the British by surprise. But soon they recovered and were able to recapture Delhi with the help of the newly raised forces in the Punjab. This was a big set back to the uprising. The british arrested, tried and deported Bahaduir Shah to Rangoon in Burma (Myanmar). In April 1858. Kunwar Singh died of a serious injury caused during his fierce struggle against the British. Two months later, the British captured Lucknow. Lakshmi Bai Rani of Jhansi fought a heroic battle with the British but luck did not favour her. She had to leave Jhansi. Thereafter, she captured Gwalior in collaboration with Tantia Tope and died in June 1858 an inspiring death fighting against the enemy forces. Tantia Tope himself, who offered a strong resistance to the British for two years both in Central India and Rajputana, fell into their hands through treachery and was hanged.Nana Saheb left India and went to Nepal. The British with the best of their efforts could not capture him. His disappearance has led to many romantic legends.
Several factors helped the British to suppress the upheaval. Some of them were the telegraph system and steamer service and diplomacy. While the telegraph system enabled them to receive timely information, the steamer service helped them in dispatching quickly arms and ammunition and troops to the trouble spots. Similarly, through their diplomacy they could enlist the support of Nepal, Patiala, Nabha and Jind as well as prime ministers, Dinkar rao of Gwalior and Salar Jung of Hyderabad against the rebels. In addition, the British exploited the differences among the Indians based on religions, caste and regional considerations. The end of the Crimean war, which had resulted in the defeat of Russia, had also enabled the British to with draw the English troops from Turkey and use their services in India. However, the most important factor which contributed considerably to the collapse of the upheaval was that it took place earlier than the fixed date(31 May 1857 ) . This premature outbreak had resulted in the lack of coordination among the leaders and forces fighting in different areas. On the other hand, it had forewarned the British rulers who could take precautionary measures in advance.
POLICY OF REPRESSION AND REWARD
After the suppression of the uprising, the British followed a policy of brutal repression and reward. Those who had fought against the British were subjected to inhuman cruelties. The common civilians, including the peasants, also became the target of the British wrath. The revengeful British mervelessly murdered, shot dead and executed hundreds of Indians and resorted to loot and arson in the recaptured and other towns. To instill terror among the people, the British hanged the bank or river Ganga from Benaras to Allahabad. In Awadh alone, over one lakh Indians, both Hindu and Muslim were killed. On the other hand, those who had helped the British were rewarded with sanads, titles, jagirs and similar other things.
But this was not all. In August 1858, the British Parliament passed an Act which ended the rule of the English East India Company and transferred the control of the British Government in India to the British Crown. Queen Victoria also issued a Proclamation the same year indicating the nature of policies to be pursued by the British Government in India. The British took several steps in order to strengthen their rule in India and create dissensions in the Indian society. The steps aimed at weakening the society included the disarming of the entire Indian population and reorganization of the army on caste, communal and regional lines. And, those designed to create a strong support base for the British included the preservation of princely states as breakwaters against the rising tide of any future rebellion and association of the loyal Indian elements with the legislature. They won over the loyalty of princes by discarding their age-old policy of annexation and associated the loyalist Indians with the legislature by enacting the Indian Councils Act  of 1861.
IMPORTANCE OF THE UPRISING
Though the uprising  collapsed, it did constitute a great landmark in the history of Indian freedom movement. It was the last organized effort of the old order based on organized armies and princes and its failure led to the completion of the process of political and military expansion started by the British at Plassey in 1757. At the same time, the uprising helped in achieving political unity between different regions against the foreign rule. It also set for the nation, numerous glorious heroic examples. The subjugated Indians were deeply moved and inspired by the supreme sacrifices made by Rani Lakshmi Bai. Tantia Tope and others.
SPIRIT OF RESISTANCE
The failure of the 1857 upheaval and reign of terror let loose by the British against the Indians could not completely kill their spirit of resistance. As a result, India after 1857 witnessed several anti-British revolts. Some of them were armed.
In Benaras, a mass protest was organised against the imposition of house tax. According to an eye witness account, more than three lakh citizens of Benaras and adjoining areas deserted their houses, shut up their shops and suspended the labour of their farms and sat on dharna in order to force the British to withdraw the house tax order. Similarly, the imposition of income tax in 1860 gave rise to troubles in various parts of Bombay Presidency. These areas included Thana, Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Panvel and Shahpur, Trouble also broke out in Surat in1878 over the imposition of new license tax to meet famine expenditure. The people organized a hartal on 1 April. Four days later, they attacked the railway station in order to seize the stock of grain that was lying there.
In Manipur, Commander-in-Chief Tikendrajit organized a revolt against the British. He did so because they were interfering in the internal affairs of the independent state of Manipur. After a prolonged struggle, Tikendrajit laid down his life. Guru Ram Singh launched Kuka Movement in the Punjab. It was aimed at regaining the lost independence. It was also directed against those who indulged in cow-killing. According to one estimate, Guru Ram Singh had motivated two lakh Sikhs (Namdharis ) to rebel against the British and expel them from the Punjab. In 1872, the British arrested the Guru and lodged him in a prison in Rangoon. In Maharashtra. Vasudeo Balwant Phadke organized a revolutionary society(1879) in order to overthrow British rule. The British captured Phadke and sentenced him to life imprisonment.

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History : World Some Developments

Beginning of the British empire in India in 1757 and its eclipse in 1947 provide a very important chapter of the modern world history. How could a tiny island with a small population, located thousands of kilometers away and having no land links with India, reach Indian shores and emerge, step by step, her master? The present day faster means of transport and communication did not exist then and it would take almost six months for a ship to reach India from England. Early British historians used to boast that they conquered India with Indian blood and Indian money. If so, should we not ponder as to how a country,  many times bigger in size and population than England, lost her freedom!  Similarly, who could have imagined that an empire, which was at the peak of her military and civilisational strength and appeared to be invincible, would crumble down in less than a century against the freedom struggle of an unarmed people!

            Both these developments are not less than a miracle of history. They could not have happened in a vaccum. To understand them we should place them in a global context. The first question we face:  What brought the Englishmen to India and when. This question takes us to the middle of the fifteenth century, when all the sea and land trade routes between India and Europe was restless to have direct access to Indian markets. Since many centuries before Christ, Europe was importing Indian textiles, spices, jewellery and other luxury goods. But now they had to pay very heavy price to the intermediary Arab traders.

Sea-route for Trade with India 

It was in this backgournd that the Pope, supreme head of the Christian world, by an order called Papal Bull, authorized the two western most European States—Spain and Portugal- to explore alternative all-water routes to India. Consequently, and Italian navigator Columbus in the employ of Spain sailed westward and reached an unknown island. He took it to be India, named her Indies and her inhabitants Indians. After many years it could be ascertained that the newly discovered island was not India and, therefore, it was named as West Indies. Meanwhile, a Portuguese navigator, Vasco de Game, taking a round of the African continent in 1498 landed at Calicut on the western coast of India. Thus, Europe’s quest to reach India led to the discovery of new continents resulting in the formation of the present map of the world.

With Pope’s blessings and authority, kingdoms of Spain and Portugal acquired monopoly over the newly discovered lands, their wealth and maritime trade. Drawing an arbitrary line from north to south, the Pope authorized Portugal to established her monopoly over the east and Spain over the west of this line. Portugal soon established her trading centres, called factories, in almost all major trading ports on the Indian coast. Some of the Indian Princes gave them all support. Soon they started their fortification. By 1510, they captured Goa and became a political power. There, they also indulged in a large scale conversion of Hindus to Christianity. As a result, they lost the Indian sympathy and became very unpopular. Their ships laden with booty, merchandise and slaves started roaming over the seas. It aroused intense jealousy and rivalry among other European states. Their faith in the Pope’s neutrality and religious authority was shaken.

            Coincidently, religious reforms protest led by Martin Luther, Knox and Colvin was also taking shape. The period of world exploration taking shape. The period of world exploration thus witnessed the era of religious conflict as well. This led to the rise of Protestantism ( protect against the supremacy and authority of the Pope ) and breaking away from his Roaman Catholic Church. Tiny Holland, situated on sea-coast and having expertise in navigation, took the lead. England followed it. They started piracy and looting of Portuguese and Spanish domination  over the territory. In 1588, joint forces of Holland and England destroyed Channel. Thus, the order imposed by the Pope was challenged. The Dutch ships with English sailors on them sailed towards India and eastern islands like Java and Sumatra.

            In 1600 A.D. , English East India Company was established in India. Two years later, Holland established a Dutch Eastern Company. The Dutch were instrumental in destroying the Portuese monopoly over Indian trade. Subsequently, they established their factories all along the Indian coast. In 1612, through the efforts of Sir Thomas Roe, the English East India Company was able to procure a firman (authority for trade) from the Mughal trading port. From collaborators, Holland and England became competitors and rivals to each other. With a large scale massacre of Englishmen at Ambyona (Indonesia) in 1623 the Ehglish left Java for the Dutch and decided to concentrate on India.

            Gradually, the English East India Company also establish its chain of factories in all important trading centers in India. The French were the last to enter this race. The French East India Company was created in 1664. The first French factory was opened at Surat in 1668 and a ship loaded with a rich cargo of clothing materials, sugar, pepper and indigo was sent back to Madagascar, and island in the Arabian Sea. Madagascar had been colonized as a transit station between France and India. The France extended their trading activities to the east coast also. They founded their factories at Masulipatam, Pondicherry and Chandernagore. They made Pondicherry as their headquarter. Denmark also tried to enter this race. In fact, she cr4eated an East India Company of her won, but her activities were mostly confined to Tranquebar on Coromandel Coast and Serampore in Bengal. It was a minor player in this game. Thus a keen competition started among various European states for getting a foothold on Indian soil and to grab the maximum share of its trade.

            This competition was not confined to India alone. It acquired a global character. There was a scramble to acquire colonies in the new world, particularly in the northern continent, which is nowadays known as North America. The Dutch, the English and the French joined the race. The Spanish in fluence was limited to South America. Africa became the source of slave trade. Islands  scattered in different seas were also colonized. Holland being located on the mainland became and easy victim of the imperial expansions, first of Spain and later of Spain and later of France. England being an island was not much affected by the continental politics and could concentrate her energies abroad . With the passage of time, France and England emerged as the main competitors in India as well as North America.

Three Carnatic Wars( 1746-63)  were fought between England and France in South India. Their rivalry was ultimately settled in favour of England in the year 1763. The French presence in India remained confined to Pondicherry in the South and Chandernagore in Bengal. Having found a political foothold in Bengal,  the British were left alone to pursue their imperial designs in India . In 1776, the British colonies in North America supported by France declared themselves independent of the mother country, The American declaration of independence came as a set back of Britain but became a landmark in the long journey of human liberty.

            Now it was the turn of France. The French Revolution broke out in1789, with a slogan of “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”. It destroyed the monarchy, but ended in the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. With his eyes on India, Napolion conquered Egypt (1798) and thought of a plan to construct Suez Canal. However, he got himself involved in the continental wars and invited his own doom by invading the frost-covered Russia. Britain gained maximum from the conflicts among the European powers. She captured all the Dutch colonies in India, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and many islands on way to India.  Britain emerged as the leader of anti Napoleon European coalition. It was under the leadership of Arther Wellesley that Napoleon met his final defeat at the battlefield of Waterloo (1815). The defeated Napoleon was made a prisoner and exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he breathed his last.

Emergence of Britain as Super Power

After Waterloo,  Britain emerged as the unchallenged super power on the world stage. In India, too, she emerged as the paramount power after the final defeat and collapse of the Maratha confederacy in 1818. The Mughal empire did exist but only in name having no power and no teeth left with it. The British had already established their authority by replacing the Maratha domination at Delhi in 1803.

            It is an interesting coincidence of history that the rise and expansion of the British power in India progressed hand in hand with a scientific and technological revolution in Europe. Battle of Buxar of 1764 marks the first decisive military success of the English East India Company in India. IN 1768, steam power was invented in England. It became a vehicle of the great Industrial Revolution, which gave birth to machine civilization. Fast means of transport and communication such as steam engine, steamship  and telegraph were being invented. In fact, Europe started undergoing a radical transformation. Old social, economic and political institutions started giving way to the new ones. Europe’s relationship with its colonies was also changing. Now England and other European countries needed markets for their surplus production and also raw material for their machines to produce more. In the scale of material civilization Europe was going higher and Asia was sinking low. Proud of its material progress and new  civilization Europe’s ego took a racial colour. Asia and Africa were looked upon as sources of raw materials and markets for European production. It needs to be noted that by 1914, practically the whole of Asia and Africa and some other parts of the world had gone into the hands of one European colonial power or the other.

            Steamer was introduced in India in 1835. In the same year first medical college on western lines was opened at Calcutta(Kolkata). In 1835, Macaulay gave his verdict in favour of English education, which meant imparting of European knowledge through English medium. Macaulay’s aim was to create a class of Indians who would be Indian in colour and blood, but Englishmen in tastes, ideals and morals. England looked  at India as a jewel in the crown of her vast empire. India with her vast land and large population could both be a supplier of raw materials and a market for British industrial production.

            While Britain was expanding and strengthening her administrative grip over India, Europe was torn between competitive nationalism unleashed by the French Revolution. Different nation-states were fighting for colonies in Africa for raw materials, for more and more markets. Motivated by the desire to reach sea boundaries, Russia was trying to expand to the east, to the south and to the west, thus posing a danger to the British hegemony in India. The focus of British foreign and defence policies throughout the nineteenth century lay in India. Britain had created and elaborate defence structure right from England on both sides of India. And, therefore, to check Russia’s southward expansion became Britain’s main concern. As a result, Britain assumed the role of a protector of the Ottoman empire of Turkey against the rising tide of nationalism in eastern Europe. The people there were groaninig under the Ottoman rule for centuries. On the other hand, Russia emerged as a supporter of the eastern Europeans, who were opposed to the Muslim rule of Turkey. This Anglo-Russian rivalry flared up in the Crimean war of 1854-56.

            In Asia, Britain tried to check Russia’s southward advance in Persia. She also fought two disastrous wars in Afghanistan under the pretext of forestalling the Russian advance. In India Lord Dalhousie(1846-56) was in a hurry to conquer the whole of the country. He was determined to bring under the British as large an area as possible. His main aim was the expansion of British export to India. The instrument through which he implemented his policy of expansionism was the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ about which you would read in the next chapter.

            As told earlier, the European powers everywhere began with economic ambitions. These were followed by political ambitions to be followed by what may be termed as a religious agenda. Trade led to political conquest and political power was used to propagate Christianity. In India, the Portuguese led the way. The English East India Company in the name of religious neutrality was giving maximum support and encouragement to Christianity. The cartridges greased with the prohibited cow and pig fat were introduced in the army. This action proved counter-productive and became the immediate cause of the great upheaval of 1857. What is relevant here to remember is the failure of this upheaval and the famous theory of evolution by an English thinker Charles Darwin.  According to this theory, through a long process of natural selection man had descended not from Adam but from Ape.  The theory also propounded the idea of continuous struggle for existence leading to the survival of the fittest.

            This theory of evolution revolutionized the whole thinking of Europe and America. The British victory over the Indian rebellion was seen as a victory of civilization over barbarism. A new theory of “White man’s Burden” was created. European civilization in Asia, Africa, Australia and America was interpreted as a civilizing mission entrusted to the white races by God or Destiny. The British conquest of India was also seen as a part of the same civilizing mission. The failure of the 1857 upheaval turned out to be the end of an era and beginning of a new one .

            But Europe was riven with rivalries. The German and Italian nationalisms were struggling for political unity. The German speaking people were divided into many small independent states and so were the Italian people. Powerful intellectual movements were sweeping people were divided into many small independent states and so were the Italian people . Powerful intellectual movements were sweeping both the nationalisms. The German nationalism saw France as the main enemy in the way of her political unity. The Italian nationalism, on the other hand, saw Austria as the main obstacle. The German nationalism looked towards Great Britain for support against its traditional rival France and this support was readily available. This Anglo-German collaboration against France manifested itself in intellectual field also. A young German Sanskrit scholar Max Muller migrated to England in 1846 and till his death England and Germany. Max Muller did his maximum to popularize the idea of an Aryan race and the Aryan invasion of India. In fact, his theory laid the foundation of a racial interpretation of India’s manifold diversity—social, religious, linguistic and regional. This Aryan invasion theory was used as an intellectual instrument to further the well-known British policy of divide and rule as well as convert the British policy of divide and rule as well as convert the British political conquest into a permanent cultural conquest.

            Anyhow, under the leadership of the Prussian Chancellor Bismark, German nationalism achieved its goal of political unification in 1871 after a bloody war against France and with open British support on diplomatic front. The same year unification of Italy was also achieved. But Britain’s happiness over the emergenceof these new states on the map of Europe turned out to be short-lived. United Germany was in a hurry to join the race of industrialisation, trade and colonization. As a matter of fact, she paid utmost attention to industrialization and militarization and colonies. She created a powerful navy to back her claims. Within two decades of German unification in 1871, Britain discovered that Germany had ceased to be her friend and had become her main rival.

            As a part of her Asian policy, Germany started befriending Turkey and planned a Berlin-Baghadad Railway Project. This was seen by Britain as a great danger to her interests in Asia, more particularly in India. After 1890, the German activities became the main concern of British foreign and defence policies. Britain decided to mend fences with her two traditional enemies—France and Russia. She soon entered into friendship treaties with both of them. Russia was already in a depressed state of mind because of the humiliating defeat she had suffered in 1905 at the hands of a tiny Asian country Japan.  This defeat of a great European power aroused great enthusiasm and hopes in the Asian mind.

Two World Wars

Turkey because of her tilt towards Germany also lost the British support which earlier had saved her against Russian expansionism and independence struggles in Eastern Europe. Now Britain was no more interested in stopping the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. This became evident in the 1912-13 Balkan Wars which led to the independence of the independence of the states like Rumania and Bulgaria from Turkish rule. The changing British attitudes towards Germany and Turkey as well as her traditional rivals France and Russia only proved the age-old maxim that in politics there are no permanent friends and enemies and that there are only permanent interest . This widening gulf between the British and the German interests was t he main cause behind the First World War of 1914-18 , although the immediate cause appeared to be the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the Austrian Emperor at Sarajevo on 28 June1914.

            Britain and her allies like France emerged victorious in the first World War.The defeated Germany lost all her newly earned overseas colonies. Her military machine was dismantled. Her own territorriies were reduced and were distributed among her neighbours. All her friends like Austria and Turkey were equally punished. The Europe’s map was redrawn and a new state called Czechoslovakia was created in her heart. Russia too underwent a political revolution. Many generation-old rule of the family of Czars was swept away by a coup led by Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party. This political change was presented to the world as an ideological revolution rooted in Marxism and Communism. Russia converted herself into Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) . The Ottoman Empire had to pay heavily for its friendship with the defeated Germany. She was dismembered. Sultan of Turkey, who was seen as Khalifa of the Muslim world lost this exalted position. Turkey underwent an internal revolution under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal Pasha. The very office of Khalifa was abolished . The treatment meted out to Turkey generated anti-British feelings among the Muslims at large, particularly in India, leading to the Khilafat Movement in the 1920s.

            The First World War gave birth to a great institution, called the League of Nations (10 January 1920). It came into being because of the initiative and insistence of American President Woodrow Wilson. Its major objectives were to prevent wars, settle international disputes and promote international cooperation and achieve peace and security.

The League of Nation settled several minor territorial disputes. It settled the disputes between Sweeden and Finland over the Auckland Islands and between Germany and Poland over the difficult  question of Upper Silesia. The League successfully intervened thrice in the disputed Balkan region. It protected Albania against attack by Yugoslavia in 1921. In 1923, it protected Greece against the possibility of aggression by Italy. Two years later, the League averted the possibility of a serious crisis between Greece and Bulgaria. Another dispute settled by the League was the boundary dispute between Turkey and Iraq in 1926.

            One of the serious defects of the League of Nations was that it did not have the necessary machinery to implement its decisions. Another defect was that it had virtually allowed itself to be dominated by the European powers like England and France. Hence, it failed to maintain territorial integrity and independence of member states when disputes involved big powers. For example, it could not restrain Hitler. Nor did it succeed in stopping Italay’s aggression in Abyssinia (1935) and Japan’s in Manchuria. In fact, the League failed to achieve any major success in the political sphere and whatever success it could achieve was at the cost of smaller countries like Ethiopia and Manchuria ( 1931 ) .

            However, the League achieved much in the field of social and humanitarian work. Its contribution to the process of suppression of the traffic in so men, children and children and opium and struggle against slavery and forced labour was indeed immense. It did much to promote educational cooperation and coordinate the activities of health and scientific bodies all over the world.

            Within the next twenty years of the signing of a number of peace treaties after the First World War, the world was again faced with a far bigger and devastative conflict, called the Second World War. In fact, the seeds of this war lay in the very Peace Treaties like the Treaty of Versailles (1919) which were seen as unjust and discriminatory by the vanquished nations.

            The German nationalism which had developed a superiority complex about the purity and antiquity of its so-called Aryan blood was smarting under the humiliating terms imposed on it under the Treaty of Versailles . The German frustration gave birth to the Personality of Adolf Hitler who created the Nazi party. The ideology of the Nazi party was a sort of fusion of German nationalism and socialism. The rising tide of German nationalism was seething with an ardent desire of  revenge. The Germans readily accepted Hitler  their leader and surrendered to his dictatorship.

            Similarly, Benito Mussolini started a Black Shirt Movement in Italy. He called it fascism.  Mussolini and the fascist party attracted many sections of society because, as he himself said, he aimed at rescuing “Italy from feeble government “. Nazism and fascism were a sort of a counterpart of the dictatorship of the proletariat (working class ) imposed upon the Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin. It is something to ponder about why major portion of Europe was governed by dictatorships. It is also interesting to note that Stalin was the first European leader to enter into a peace-agreement with Hitler. May be to buy peace for some time.

            Europe was divided into two camps the Allied Powers led by Great Britain and the Axis Powers led by Germany. In the early phase of the war, the Axis Powers scored sweeping victories everywhere. For a while , the British armies had to beat a hasty retreat at the battlefield of Dunkirk. For the first time Hitler carried the fury of war into the very house of England. England had always fought the wars of defence on the other’s soil and never had to suffer destruction in her own home. It was for the first time that the Germans bombed British cities, including their capital, London.

            The German invasion on the Soviet Union in 1941 pushed Russia and the believers in the concept of communism all over the world into the anti –German camp. In India, Gandhi had launched Quit India Movement against the British government and all the Congress leaders were locked in jail. But  the Indian Communists out of their loyalty towards the Soviet Union declared their support to the British war efforts. It was during this war that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose made a dramatic escape from British detention and reached Germany . Thereafter, he travelled to Japan in submarine. With Japan’s moral and material support he and his Indian National Army was able to liberate the island of Andaman and some part of Manipur. But with the defeat of the Axis Powers, including Japan, this valiant effort for Indian freedom  could not make further headway. However, it is a thrilling chapter of India’s freedom struggle as well as the world war. It reminds us how several lakh Indians, Indians , who had settled long back in the South Asian countries filled with patriotism, contributed so generously and gallantly in terms of blood and money for the freedom of the land of their ancestors.

            With the entry of the United States of America (USA) in the war and her support for the Allied Powers like England, France and the Soviet Union, the tide was turned against the axis powers Germany, Italy and Japan. USA was dragged into the war by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour (American naval base ) on 7 December 1941.  Until then, she had remained neutral, though the United States had given a massive financial aid to Britain. On 6 August, 1945, the Americans dropped an Atom Bomb on Japanese city of Hiroshima, killing nearly 84,000 people. Three days later, they dropped another atom bomb on Nagasaki, which left about 40,000 people dead. The dropping of these atomic bombs  on Japan was one of the most devastating and controversial actions of the entire war.

Post War Development     

Although the war had ended in favour of the Allied Powers initially led by Great Britain, she emerged out of it quite weak economically and militarily. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as two great world powers. In fact, the post-war politics got polarized between the United States and the Soviet Union. Britain, because of her internal weaknesses as well as pressure from these two super powers was not in a position to retain her hold on India . Hence, she decided to withdraw. But in the process she pushed India to the brink of a communal partition accompanied by the worst holocaust of human massacre and displacement.

            The post-second World War period witnessed an era of the retreat of European colonialism. India’s independence became the precursor of the emancipation of almost all the Asian and African colonies. The League of Nations was reborn with a new name. United Nations Organisation (October,1945 ). Its seat was shifted from Geneva in Switzerland to New York in the United states of America. This change also symbolized the emergence of the USA as a super power. But she had now to contend with the Soviet Union as leader of the Communist nations. This meant a continuous Cold War between the two power blocks.  (Cold war here means intense rivalries between the United States and the Soviet Union coupled with a sort of determination to avoid a full-scale and open war.)   But independent India chose to carve out a path of Non-Alignment for herself. The Non-Aligned movement has been consistently trying to achieve a new  world order “ free from war, poverty , intolerance and injustice “. This new order also stands for peaceful coexistence and genuine independence.

            The post-1945 world witnessed several other significant developments. Some of them were the unification of Germany in October 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in December 1991. The unification of the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Western Germany was the outcome of the two major developments which took place in the German Democratic Republic in 1989. These were the changes in the leadership of the ruling Socialist Unity Party and in the government. The new leadership announced the opening of the Berlin wall which had been constructed after Germany’s partition. As far as the disintegration of the Soviet Union was concerned, it was the result of a number of factors. Some of the most important were the widespread economic and political discontent, the decade-long Russian intervention in Afghanistan and religious and ethnic strife. The immediate consequence of the disintegration of the USSR was the end of the Cold War and emergence of a unipolar world led practically by the United States of America.

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